Adding Up to More – Article

31 Jul Adding Up to More – Article

Adding Up to More: Creating a safe space for learning mathematics and much more

Judy-Ann Cilliers

jac@mathmoms.co.za

Sonja Cilliers

sonja@mathmoms.co.za

 

 

Introduction

MathMoms is an organisation founded in 2016, operating in Elsies River, Ravensmead, and surrounding areas in Cape Town, South Africa. These areas are known for gang-related violence, with high levels of sexual violence, alcoholism and drug abuse, and unemployment. The purpose of the programme is to provide children in the area with a safe space “where they learn mathematics and leave having learned much more” (MathMoms, n.d.). This is achieved through employing and training mothers in the immediate area to give extra mathematics lessons to learners at selected schools, during and after school hours. It is expected that through this after school programme, learners will not only improve their mathematical skills, but also gain self-confidence and build meaningful relationships with caring adults in their communities. Recent school results indicate that the project is having a positive impact, both on the academic performance of the learners, and on their and the mothers’ self-confidence.

This paper will explore the importance of safe relationships or attachments between children and adults in these communities, and the extent to which after-school activities are appropriate contexts for the development of these relationships. A brief outline of the programme (Section 1) and the main challenges facing the communities will be given (Section 2), with a focus on gangsterism, troubles in family life, and overcrowding in schools. We, the MathMoms organisation, seek to provide a safe space in this context for children by focussing on the potential in the community and on forming positive attachments. The approach is informed by attachment theory (Section 3), which recognises that children with secure attachments to caregivers or other adults are more resilient and able to flourish. Following an overview of attachment theory, the paper will show the extent to which the MathMoms school and after-school programme has been successful in strengthening the mothers, learners, and communities involved (Section 4).

 

1. MathMoms: Adding up to more

The MathMoms pilot programme was launched at Valhalla Primary in Elsies River, Cape Town, South Africa. In 2017, the programme was extended to three more schools in Elsies River and Ravensmead (Uitsig Primary, Eureka Primary, and Norwood Central Primary Schools), and was registered as a non-profit company (NPC). The aim of the programme is twofold: (i) to improve the mathematical skills of Grade 3 (and, from 2018 onwards, Grade 2) learners, thus improving their academic performance and future life chances. While the development of learners’ understanding of mathematics is important, in this programme maths acts as a vehicle towards (ii) community building through women’s empowerment, relationship building (between educators and parents, between adults and children), the creation of a safe space for children, and raising the self-esteem of the women and children involved. It is therefore a programme which not only speaks to the intellectual needs of the children, but also the emotional needs and social fabric of the community.

The MathMoms programme is currently in place in the four schools mentioned above, with five mentors, 28 MathMoms, and at least 248 learners participating. Our aim for 2018 is to train 70 MathMoms at 5 schools in Elsies River and Ravensmead. Each school is assigned a MathMentor – a retired teacher from the community – and a group of MathMoms. The mentors are strong and enthusiastic individuals with years of experience as teachers and community leaders. At the start of a week, the MathMoms receive lesson plans and training from the MathMentors and other specialists in the field of mathematics for the week’s lesson. The lessons were developed specifically for the MathMoms programme, and they follow an approach of ‘playing on the number line’ – teaching children mathematics through games, practical tasks, and creativity. The MathMoms also receive training on other topics such as dealing with trauma in children, life skills, communicating with children, and child development. The MathMoms regularly receive visits from guest speakers who are experts in their fields.

The MathMom is equipped in numerous ways to build meaningful relationships in the classroom, at the school, in the community, and in the MathMoms organisation. The moms and mentors foster the relationships in the group, creating a circle of trust, belonging, and mutual support. The programme invests in each participant’s personal growth through training, courses, and other forms of support, thus enabling her to become a role model for the learners and the youth of the community. While the programme is still quite young, we have reason to hold confidence that many of our goals are being achieved (more on this below).

The MathMoms programme has three components:

1. Lessons at school
2. Lessons at home

• Uitkyk-anties (community women who ‘look out’ for the children)

Lessons at school

Lessons for the Grade 3’s take place at the school during school hours, and the MathMoms also help at the school in other ways (e.g. organising events). The teachers identify the learners who participate in the programme. Learners are chosen from the ‘middle group’, i.e. learners with average performance, scoring at least a code 3 (see Table 1). The middle group learners have the greatest potential for improvement but, due to overcrowding in classrooms and other factors, often slip between the cracks.

Achievement	Achievement Description	Marks %
7	Outstanding achievement	80-100
6	Meritorious achievement	70-79
5	Substantial achievement	60-69
4	Adequate achievement	50-59
3	Moderate achievement	40-49
2	Elementary achievement	30-39
1	Not achieved	0-29

Table 1 – National codes used for recording in Foundation Phase (Department of Basic Education, 2012: 101)

Each MathMom works with two learners at a time, and with four learners per school day. The Grade 2 programme, which launches in 2018, takes place directly after school for an hour. A clinical psychologist and special needs teacher will train a MathMentor and two MathMoms per school.

The Grade 2 programme is a practical, playful way of learning concepts like: one to one comprehension, number comprehension, classification and number symbols, comparison, forms, space, parts and whole, arrangement and patterns, measurement (length, volume/capacity, mass, temperature), time, fractions and graphs. Our aim is that the learners (in groups of 7) identify mathematical concepts, learn mathematical language, and increase tactile sensation, fine motor functions, gross motor functions, and self-awareness.

Lessons at home

In the afternoon, the MathMom is required to tutor at least four children at home. These can be her own children, the children she tutors at school, and/or children living in her immediate surrounds. In reality, many of the MathMoms see 11-17 children in the afternoons. Her task is to help learners with their maths and, where necessary, other homework. This is to create a safe space outside or after school where children can receive help and guidance and so excel. The MathMoms make use of the same lessons developed for their school lessons, with additional lessons (maths up to grade 5) provided.

 

Uitkyk-anties

From conversations with principals, teachers, and the Chief Educational Specialist from the Western Cape Educational Department, we learned that a widespread problem at the schools is the lack of positive parental involvement. It is therefore also one of our aims to strengthen the relationships between parents and the school. This gave rise to the third component of the MathMoms programme: the uitkyk-anties[1]. This component was informally implemented at the schools during 2017, and in 2018 it will be implemented officially. The aims of this aspect of the programme are:

• Building a safer community
• Increasing parent involvement at the schools
• Teaching parents basic parenting skills
• Making children feel valued
• Teaching children correct learning methods at an early stage

Each school has ten uitkyk-anties, identified by the MathMoms. All of them are unemployed or stay-at-home mothers who will participate in an eight-week training programme on parenting skills, building safe communities, and the special needs of children.

Following their training, each uitkyk-antie will identify two primary school children in her vicinity. We encourage them to work with the Grade 4 learners who participated in the programme in 2017. We do this because we have learned that the learners need sustained, long term relationships with trustworthy adults to ensure further personal and interpersonal growth.

Two afternoons a week, the uitkyk-antie will meet the learners at school, after their formal lessons ended. Her duties are to help them with their homework, do brain gym and other mindfulness exercises, and do extra mathematics lessons. Once a week, they will also read with the children for an hour, as part of the Nal’ibali project (Nal’ibali, n.d.). After these sessions, she will accompany the children back to their homes, to ensure that they arrive safely.

2. Challenges in the community

The MathMoms programme grew out of a need identified by members of the communities in which we work, and it is therefore necessary to understand the challenges facing these communities to fully grasp the importance of this work.

The areas in which the MathMoms work face many challenges which impede children’s chance to flourish. For the purposes of this paper we focus on three broad, interrelated, challenges: (i) gangsterism and violence; (ii) challenges in family life; (iii) educational challenges.

Elsies River and its surrounding communities experience high levels of violence. Children living in these communities are not safe on the streets, due to gang violence and the high crime rate, and they are very often subjected to different forms of abuse at home as well (MacMaster, 2010:92; Van Schalkwyk, 2016:47). Gangsterism accounts for around 70% of all crime in the Western Cape, and it is communities like Elsies River that are hardest hit (Kinnes, 2000:5). The history of gangsterism in these areas is complex, but it is widely agreed (see Bowers du Toit, 2014; Pinnock, 2016; MacMaster, 2010) that it is a legacy of the forced removals in Cape Town during Apartheid.[2] The forced removals fragmented families and community networks, which before had exercised social control to keep the gangs in check (Calix in Bowers du Toit, 2014: 2). Unemployment, poverty, scarcity and overcrowding exacerbates the problem (Bowers du Toit 2014:2).

Another key factor which contributed to the resurgence of gangs in the Cape Flats in the 1980s, and still contributes, is the crisis in education: “the lack of alternative instruction in schools, large scale abandonment of schools and unemployment as a result of limited job possibilities” (MacMaster, 2010:36). One of the biggest challenges facing schools in the area is overcrowding, with 45-55 students per classroom competing for the teacher’s attention (Tswanya & Hlati, 2017). This has a negative impact on both teacher and learner, with teachers suffering from stress and overwork, and learners not receiving individual attention or an education which provides them with the skills necessary for further study or the job market. Furthermore, South Africa’s education system has a reputation for poor performance in mathematics specifically (Western Cape Government, 2015). The school system is, according to Pinnock (2017:209) “deeply implicated in gang formation”. With the education learners receive, their possibilities seem so limited that they join gangs for a taste of success. Sometimes, they join gangs so that they can reach school safely (see Pinnock, 2016: 201-214).

Due to high levels of unemployment and poverty, many of the inhabitants of the communities in which we work are socially excluded and exist outside of the formal economy (MacMaster, 2010:43). The gangs, enriched by the drug trade and other criminal activities[3], use their wealth to provide for their communities, thus gaining control (Kinnes, 2000:10). A study done by Bowers (2005, in Bowers du Toit, 2014: 2) in Lavender Hill found that “one of the most devastating effects of a low skilled populous with a high unemployment rate is that it results in the economic power lying largely in the hands of the gangs of the area [which] has devastating social effects”.

Within these contexts, gangs and gangsters become powerful role models and symbols of wealth and success. Gangs often target youths from economically or emotionally unstable family backgrounds (Bowers du Toit, 2014:2). When institutions such as the family, schools, the state and churches fail to provide and care for their youth, the protection and wealth offered by the gangs seems more inviting. MacMaster (2010:49) argues that families should provide three things to members: “protection, belonging and respect”. Where these three things are not present, children may be more likely to consider joining a gang to fill the void. Pinnock (2016:155-183) discusses the crises faced by families in communities on the Cape flats: emotional abandonment and the psychological unavailability of a parent, racism, economic deprivation, absent or violent fathers/parents, food insecurity, substance abuse, and the effect of trauma on individuals’ health (to name a few). Where these factors are present (often combined), children are more likely to mimic the violence and emotional detachment:

How we behave comes to reflect what is stimulated, encouraged, rewarded and proves successful in a particular context, be it home, neighbourhood, school or peer group. Young children will conform to the social environment whether the context is positive or negative, supportive or toxic […] Conformity first happens through constant reinforcement from adults… (Pinnock, 2016:157)

In a “socially disorganised neighbourhood”, gangs act as a social support system for vulnerable youths (Wood & Allyne in Bowers du Toit, 2014:3). It is therefore also beneficial for the gangs to create more social instability (through violence, drug addiction, coercion, etc.), in order to gain members and power. These conditions have an adverse effect on community, at times undermining any sense of belonging, appreciation or respect and leading to distrust, withdrawal, and hardened attitudes toward one another (MacMaster, 2010:66).

In his study on gangsterism in the Cape Flats, Llewellyn MacMaster (2010:47) writes:

One may conclude that, as long as large sections of the communities on the Cape Flats experience poverty and unemployment, gang leaders and drug bosses would find desperate and willing people prepared to do anything to survive.

When speaking of poverty, MacMaster relies on SA Statistics’ extended definition:

The denial of opportunities and choices most basic to human development to lead to a long, healthy, creative life and to enjoy a decent standard of living, freedom, dignity, self-esteem and respect. (Western Cape Youth Commission in MacMaster, 2010:47).

What becomes clear from this definition is that one’s context has a profound effect on one’s psychological and emotional development, one’s view of oneself, and one’s future happiness and success. The violence children in these communities experience every day has a severely traumatising effect, and inhibits their flourishing.

3. Our approach: attachment theory

The challenges to the community can be debilitating and seem insurmountable at times, but this is not the only story these communities have to tell. To borrow the words of Peter Block (2009:2, emphasis in original): “We begin [the transformation of communities] by shifting our attention from the problems of community to the possibility of community”, creating “a structure of belonging”. Strong communities have social capital – a shared sense of belonging, a valuing of interdependence, and hospitality and affection (Block, 2009:5). The MathMoms programme recognises that our communities hold massive potential if only those whose “gifts remain on the margin” (Block, 2009:2) can be given an opportunity. Through the programme, this opportunity is given to the women and children, and by implication the broader communities, in Elsies River and Ravensmead.

The driving ideas behind the MathMoms programme are attachment, resilience, and safe spaces. Through an approach informed by attachment theory, the MathMoms teach learners (and themselves!) to be resilient, while also creating a space where the child feels secure, recognised, respected, and within which they can thrive. We refer to this as intensive care or ICU: I see you. A resilient individual is one who, despite adversity and trauma, adapts and thrives, enhancing themselves and their surrounds (Fink, 2010:4,9).

Attachment theory was developed in the late 1960 by John Bowlby (1969; 1982). Bowlby believes that humans have a genetic predisposition to form attachments as a means of survival. It is for this reason that infants and young children seek proximity to their caregivers – the child is seeking security and protection: “[t]hreats activate the attachment system […] and its behavioural outcomes, such as proximity seeking, increase the likelihood of protection, support, and survival” (Ein-Dor & Hirschberger, 2016:223). The caregiver’s response to the child’s proximity has a deep impact on the child’s development. A positive and welcoming response breeds trust, strengthens the relationship, and makes the child feel as if they have a safety net to fall back on in times of need: “[b]ecause of this “secure base” to which the chid can return during times of distress, he or she is reassured in his or her attempts to explore the world and experiment with rapidly developing skills” (Allen, 2011:4). Where the reaction is negative or negligent, the opposite – feelings of insecurity and anxiety – is the case. Children without a secure base to which they can return in times of distress “show less behavioural exploration and pursuit of opportunities than individuals with more secure styles [of attachment]” (Yee & Shiota, 2015:907).

Ainsworth identified three attachment styles or patterns of behaviour (i-iii), which were later supplemented by another style identified by Main and Solomon (iv) (Allen, 2011:4):

1. Secure

Infant or child feels safe to explore their environment; may feel anxiety when separated from caregiver; reacts positively upon return of caregiver

1. Insecure/avoidant

Infants are less likely to explore their environment; not distressed by separation from caregiver; ignores caregiver upon return

• Insecure/resistant

Preoccupied with caregiver, which severely limits exploration; distressed when separated; refuse comfort upon return

1. Disorganised/disoriented

No coherent pattern of attachment; behaviour is eccentric, contradictory, or aimless

A secure attachment style is indicative of a parent-child relationship in which the parent, or caregiver, is responsive to the needs of the child. This relationship is important, as it has an impact on the child’s representation of their self, their caregiver/parent, and the patterns their future interactions will follow:

These cognitive schema, or “internal working models,” assist the child in self-evaluation, goal-directed behavior, emotion regulation, assessing the safety of relationships, as well as other intrapersonal and interpersonal functions. (Allen, 2011:4)

Children with secure attachment styles (and responsive caregivers) develop more adaptive working models as they grow up, displaying “more effective social skills, higher self-esteem and increased self-efficacy” (Allen, 2011:4) than children whose caregivers are unresponsive or abusive. This is supported by later studies. Allen (2011:5) cites studies[4] which found that children who had a secure perception of their attachment to their mother had better relationships with their peers than children who did not. The findings of the studies “suggest that a child’s level of attachment security predicts the three hypothesised internal working models in middle childhood: his or her perception of self (self-worth), others (parents and peers), and social interactions or self in relation to others (peer competence and acceptance)” (Allen, 2011:5).

It is important to note that a child’s future is not completely determined by how he/she experiences attachment as infants. Other factors and events later in life can also have an influence:

Sufficient experiences during childhood, such as responsive caregiving, can set the child on a healthy pathway of development […] however, detrimental events, such as abuse or neglect, can alter the developmental pathway in a deviant direction. A child who develops an insecure or disorganized pattern of attachment begins life on an unhealthy trajectory, thereby requiring positive experiences sufficient to alter his or her trajectory back toward a more adaptive course of development. (Allen, 2011:5, our emphasis)

It is these “positive experiences” which the MathMoms are providing. In recognising the importance of forming attachments, the MathMoms provide care and attention which the children may not necessarily find at home or in the classroom. A secure and trusting relationship between a care-giver (or caring adult) and a child increases the child’s social competence, with securely attached children demonstrating “more positive affect, increased achievement, greater conflict resolution, better positive perception of the self, better social competence, and better overall school adjustment” (Joy, 2016:269). If, as is sometimes the case, the child does not have this kind of relationship with their parents, another adult can step in. Very often teachers are positive role models (Fink, 2010:67). However, given the problem of overcrowded classrooms, it is often difficult for teachers to form individual attachments to all the children. The cleverest and the naughtiest children receive all the attention, with those in the middle slipping through the cracks. It is for this reason that the children in the MathMoms programme is chosen from the ‘middle’ group.

4. What we achieved

Fink (2010:7) identifies five resources every child needs to flourish:

(1) Ongoing relationships with caring adults; (2) Safe places with structured activities outside of school; (3) A healthy start to life and a future; (4) An effective education that teaches marketable skills; and (5) opportunities to help others through community service

These resources are what the MathMoms hope to provide to the women and children of Elsies River and Ravensmead. At the end of the pilot project (Valhalla Primary, 2016), Soreaso, a research company in the development field, evaluated the project. Their report assessed the value the programme added to the learners’ lives, their families, the community, the mothers, and the school. In their report (Soreaso, 2016), the following was found:

• Learners feel more valued and supported than before, both academically and personally
• Learners expressed a more positive attitude toward mathematics as a subject following their lessons with the MathMoms
• Learners feel more relaxed during the MathMoms’ classes compared to their regular classes
• The MathMoms found purpose and drive through the project. They reported feeling supported by the group, and feeling more self-assured and confident: “Their caring for one another and the project’s learners are tangible signs of the project making a lasting impact on the lives of those involved in it” (Soreaso, 2016:14)
• The MathMoms also reported:
  • Feeling more energised
  • More positive body image
  • Increase in the quality of their relationships with others
  • Feeling more creative
  • Increase in concentration
• The school educators were positive, reporting that the participating learners’ understanding of mathematics improved, with 13 out of 32 learners showing immediate improvement
• They also saw an increased level of confidence in the participating learners
• The school psychologist was very positive about the project (and she is still involved), believing that the individual attention given to the learners has a positive impact on their lives

In 2017 comparable results were reported by the MathMoms, learners, and educators. Learners from three of the schools were tested in March in November, with 70% of the learners’ results improving, as shown in Figure 1 The majority of the remaining learners’ academic results stayed the same, except for a few learners whose performance weakened. The schools’ mathematics results in the 2017 WCED Systemic Tests (Grade 3’s) is shown in Figure 2. Three of the schools showed considerable improvement. One school’s results worsened. A possible explanation for this could be that the school was without a qualified maths teacher for one of the classes for 5 months.[5]

Figure 1: Improvement in reported results from March to November

 

Figure 2: Comparison between 2016 and 2017 WCED Systemic Test Results

 

 

Concluding Remarks

Teaching is always about relationship. A child who does not feel secure, or a child who is traumatised, struggles to learn and struggles to form emotional connections with others or with themselves. Over the past two years, the MathMoms programme has sought to counter this – to provide security and stability, academic and emotional support, respect and a bit of fun for the children of Elsies River and Ravensmead. Our impact has been positive, with learners achieving better marks, and both learners and mothers feeling more confident and resilient. In a sense, this was an unintended consequence of a programme focussing on the teaching of maths. However, we believe that what we learnt in this way has implications for mathematics education in schools, as well as for all other after school programmes. It is not enough to focus on enhancing the academic skills of educators. It is crucial that their well-being is also taken care of. Personal growth in the educator leads to personal growth in the learners and potentially to better discipline and academic achievement. We hope that the circles of trust we are building with the learners and the MathMoms will extend more and more to include the teachers, so that our program will benefit them as well.

Given the complex challenges facing the communities, our impact may seem small, but the MathMoms and their learners are starting to tell a new story: one of hope, one of bringing meaning, one of possibilities being realised.  Learner by learner, school by school, community by community, we will improve mathematics results and make a positive contribution to the future of our children and our country.

 

 

Bibliography

Ainsworth, M. D. S., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, S. N. (1978). Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the Strange Situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Allen, B. (2011). The Use and Abuse of Attachment Theory in Clinical Practice With Maltreated Children, Part I: Diagnosis and Assessment. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 12(1), 3-12.

Block, P. (2009). Community: The Structure of Belonging. Oakland, Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.

Booth-LaForce, C., Rubin, K. H., Rose-Krasnor, L., & Burgess, K. B. (2005). Attachment and friendship predictors of psychosocial functioning in middle childhood and the mediating roles of social support and self-worth. In K. A. Kerns & R. A. Richardson (Eds.), Attachment in middle childhood, 161-188. New York, NY: Guilford.

Bowers Du Toit, N.F. (2014). Gangsterism on the Cape Flats: A challenge to ‘engage the powers’. HTS Theological Studies, 70(3).

Bowlby, J. (1973). Attachment and loss: Vol. 2. Separation: Anxiety and anger. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Bowlby, J. (1982). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Basic Books.

Department of Basic Education. (2012). Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement. Retrieved at: https://www.uj.ac.za/faculties/facultyofeducation/eli/Documents/Mathematics%20CAPS%20Gr%201-3%20Jan%202011.pdf [23 March 2018]

Ein-Dor, T. & Hirshberger, G. (2016). Rethinking Attachment Theory: From a Theory of Relationships to a Theory of Individual and Group Survival. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 25(4), 223-227.

Fink, B.L. (2010). The Effect of a Seventh Grade After School Leadership Program on the Developmental Assets, Academic Achievement, and Behavior of Non-thriving Students. Dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the University of Nebraska for the Requirements of the Degree Doctor of Education.

Joy, J.M (2016). Evaluating Positive Social Competence in Preschool Populations. School Community Journal, 26(2).

Kinnes, I. (2000). From urban gangs to criminal empires: the changing face of gangs in the Western Cape. ISS Monograph Series No 48. Halfway House, Institute for Security Studies.

MathMoms. N.d. MathMoms. Retrieved at www.mathmoms.co.za [25 January 2017]

McMaster, L. (2010). In search of a family: The challenge of gangsterism to faith communities on the Cape Flats. Dissertation presented for the degree of Doctor of Theology in the faculty of Theology (Department of Practical Theology and Missiology) at Stellenbosch University. Stellenbosch: SUNScholar.

Nal’ibali, n.d. Nal’ibali: About Us. Retrieved at: nalibali.org/about-us [23 March 2018]

Pinnock, D. (2016). Gang Town. Cape Town, Tafelberg Publishers.

Soreasa. (2016). Evaluation Report: MathMoms Project, Valhalla Primary School. Unpublished report.

Tswanya, Y. and Hlati, O (2017). Cape teachers not coping with overcrowding. Retrieved at https://www.dailyvoice.co.za/news/cape-teachers-not-coping-with-overcrowding-10446824  [30 November 2017]

Van Schalkwyk, L. (2016). (Re)Framing Gangsterism in the Cape: Facilitating a Dialogue between Local Government and Ex-Gang Members. Dissertation presented for the Master’s degree in Victimology and Criminal Justice in the Law faculty at Tilburg University. Retrieved at http://arno.uvt.nl/show.cgi?fid=142103 [25 November 2017]

Western Cape Government. (2015). Mathematics Strategy 2015-2019. Cape Town, Western Cape Government.

Yee, C.I. & Shiota, M.N. (2015). An insecure base: Attachment style and orienting response to positive stimuli. Psychophysiology, 52(2015), 905–909.

 

[1] Literally translated: look-out aunts

[2] For an in-depth discussion on gangsterism in Cape Town, see (Pinnock, 2017).

[3] “The criminal elite control the distribution and sale of alcohol and drugs in their areas, while some control a local sex industry, export stolen cars, sell stolen firearms and also arrange the theft of goods from factories and warehouses that are to be resold in their domains. Their business portfolios further include hotels, night clubs, public transport, garages, shops and commercial fishing boats” (MacMaster, 2010:43)

[4] (Booth-LaForce, Rubin, Rose-Krasnor, and Burgess, 2005)

[5] The results shown in Figures 1 and 2 were provided by the school principals.